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I can tell you this much: in Luke 2:22, Jesus’ parents offer 2 doves when they present Jesus in the Temple. This is indisputable proof that they were poor at the time, as this was the sacrifice made if you couldn’t afford the livestock (Leviticus 14:30). In proverbs, it says “I have never seen the righteous begging for bread”, Jesus says “do not worry what you will eat or wear... Your Heavenly Father will provide these things”. God fed Elijah by miraculously having a raven bring him bread, and provided Manna to the Israelites. So the Bible has plenty of evidence that God will provide for essential needs. If, however, you look at poverty through the modern lens of being “below the poverty line”, both the first example and the fact that Leviticus even has that provision, and the fact that Jesus made statements like “woe to you who are well fed”, would all indicate that experiencing comparative poverty is not outside of the possible circumstances of the faithful.
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According to Catholicism, does faith or trust in God guarantee protection from poverty?
The short answer is no.
If it were that easy to avoid poverty, there would be no poor left in the world.
Monks take vows of poverty. Some lived in very real poverty such as Blessed Charles de Foucauld.
How many martyrs were dispossessed of their property before being tortured and killed.
Last but not least, we have the words of Our Lord in regards to the poor:
You will always have the poor among you, but you will not always have me." - John 12:8
Many of the saints were poor!
Our faith and trust in God can and will always help in dealing with real poverty, for our true hope should always be in Our Lord.
Just as St. Paul was not relieved of his thorn in his side (2 Corinthians 12:7–9), so how can we believe that by being confident in trusting and having faith in God will protect us from poverty and/or a lack of food? It can not.
And lest I should be exalted above measure through the abundance of the revelations, there was given to me a thorn in the flesh, the messenger of Satan to buffet me, lest I should be exalted above measure. 8 For this thing I besought the Lord thrice, that it might depart from me. 9 And he said unto me, My grace is sufficient for thee: for my strength is made perfect in weakness. Most gladly therefore will I rather glory in my infirmities, that the power of Christ may rest upon me. (KJV)
Even the example of the saintly Job as mentioned in Geremia’s answer is not an example maintained for the average individual. Life is very fragile at the best of times.
Our greatest form of poverty is sin itself and not the lack of material possessions or lack of food. Thus we are all poor in some sense. Serious sin will deprive oneself of one’s ultimate good (Beatific Vision) forever if not forgiven before one dies.
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Job is an excellent counterexample. He was a very holy man, but was stricken with poverty. His friends tried to convince him that his poverty was due to some hidden sin, but Job refutes them, showing that some wicked men are rich and some just men are poor.
See St. Thomas Aquinas's commentary on Job. He repeatedly shows that Job refutes those, like Job's friends, "who excluded divine providence and attributed everything to fortune and to chance."