What is the name of this ancient means of identification based on broken objects?
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I do not know if there is a multipurpose generic name for such a divided/broken identification technique but there is an example from many centuries past that has survived into modern maritime practice.
The contract to hire a vessel is called a "charter party" as evolved from the Latin carta partita, or torn/divided charter/letter. In pre-modern times, to authenticate the authorities of the shipowner and of the ship charterer/lessee two identical copies of the full terms of the contract were inscribed on the same document/parchment which was cut or torn in two. The ship owner and the ship charterer each retained one copy and, when the two copies were joined together showing a perfect match between the torn edges, the rights of the respective parties could be determined. At a minimum this could serve to impede a ship charterer from selling a vessel which it possessed only by temporary rental but fraud could be attempted by an unscrupulous charterer. By the peripatetic nature of sea going vessels the application of the laws of a specific jurisdiction was impractical, resulting in the development over time of international practices that evolved into admiralty law, the first form of international law which came to be adopted by sea going countries, aspects of which were eventually codified in international conventions.
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Source: stackoverflow.com
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