How do we know who ancient sculptures depict?
score:8
I've gathered that there are a few ways, having wondered that myself.
A few paths are (1) corroboration, (2) chronological probability and (3) symbolic (internal) significance.
Corroboration can be weak or strong. We have some portraits and statues that are affirmed to be X by a slightly less ancient authority than the sculpture's own provenance (e.g. Aelian identifying Pythagoras). Tradition has passed them down to us as that person, but we don't always know their sources or evidence. That's not to say they can be thrown out, of course; maybe they really did have access to something we don't, such as a plaque that went with it or the document commissioning a portrait of X. Speaking of which, we can have such documents ourselves if lucky. Here are some plaques found in Pompeii that "may belong to a monument or monuments not yet excavated", which if we find we'll identify fairly well.
Another kind of corroboration is in multiple instances. Many famous figures and deities have multiple portraits (many are even simple copies, as our many Roman copies of Greek busts). If some are known with more certainty because of inscriptions, we can identify the others based on them. Here's an example of a Caesar whose face is very close to the portrait on denarii of the time, which we know with certainty is meant to be his likeness.
Chronological probability also plays a role, but is not very strong. The reasoning is simple: Here's a statue found in this place, dated to this time. The most likely figure from that place and time is X ... Now, in the case of philosophers, this argument isn't very strong, but as jwenting wrote, it works well in a temple of Artemis.
For deities as well, the system of symbolic representation is quite thorough and careful, as you indicated regarding Justicia. Admittedly, it's more of an Eastern phenomenon, from Egypt through Mesopotamia, than it is Roman and Greek. Every bit can be significant, from each piece of garb to the expressions and gestures. The Wikipedia article you cited refers to the lady's hand positions and the possibility of prayer. Some Egyptian symbols are the ankh, wadjet, dyed, scarab, various sceptres, etc. These not only stand for such things as life and protection, but also bear the names of gods in various places.
They are supposedly consistent enough that you can find real people dressed up as deities or performing deities' actions, e.g. likely depictions of Cleopatra here and here. Some triangulation: if you find writing comparing Cleopatra to Isis, then find a statue of a woman dressed with some of Isis' symbols and with features copied from a bust that may be Cleopatra, said statue is likely of Cleopatra.
Of course, there is indeed lots of room for doubt.
It would take someone less ignorant than myself to say anything more definite, so I'll stop here :)
Upvote:2
Several ways to be sure:
- comparison to other depictions of the same person or entity
- name listed on a plaque or plinth found nearby
- description in existing literature
And then of course there are the blind guesses based on the general area the depiction was found. For example an unattributed statue of a women in a temple of Artemis will likely be assumed to depict Artemis.
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